Although Dim was publicly praised, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles privately conceded that Dim had to be backed because they could find no better alternative. [24], President Thiu, a former general, was fearful that his forces would be cut off in the north by the attacking communists; Thieu ordered a retreat, which soon turned into a bloody rout. In the United States, President Dwight Eisenhower, who had warned against the possible expansion of communism in April, obviously opposed the unifying election. President Richard M. Nixon assumed responsibility for the Vietnam War as he swore the oath of office on January 20, 1969. Beginning in September, the Khanh government was succeeded by a bewildering array of cliques and coalitions, some of which stayed in power less than a month. [266] They also fought in the Battle of Hue. Major allies, however, notably NATO nations Canada and the United Kingdom, declined Washington's troop requests.[157]. Why did America go to war with Vietnam? [87]:260. [284] According to a congressional report, the jamming was not related to operator error or to an inherent flaw in the rifle, but instead due to a change in the gunpowder to be used in the rifle's cartridges, which led to rapid powder fouling of the action and failures to extract or feed cartridges. Casualties fluctuated considerably from year to year, but a degree of accuracy can be inferred from the fact that 500,000 was 59 percent of the 849,018 total and that 59 percent of the war's days had passed by the time of Fallaci's conversation with Giap. [188]:649650[352][353], Between 275,000[65] and 310,000[66] Cambodians were estimated to have died during the war including between 50,000 and 150,000 combatants and civilians from US bombings. The B-52s literally dropped their payloads in the lake." President Diem, refusing an American offer of safety contingent upon his resignation, was assassinated. Encounter Books, December 2022. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in VietnamWashington, November 6, 19637:50 p.m.", "Counterinsurgency in Vietnam: Lessons for Today", "Vietnam Study, Casting Doubts, Remains Secret", "Making More Enemies than We Kill? Vietnam War - The Nixon administration and the Vietnam War When first deployed, the M16 also suffered from a propensity to jam in combat, leaving the soldier defenseless and potentially killing him. [176] In a speech before the National Press Club he said a point in the war had been reached "where the end comes into view. [183][184] Nixon had also sought dtente with the Soviet Union and rapprochement with China, which decreased global tensions and led to nuclear arms reduction by both superpowers; however, the Soviets continued to supply the North Vietnamese with aid. US casualties in 1970 were less than half of 1969 casualties after being relegated to less active combat. [290], On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The negotiations became deadlocked when Hanoi demanded new changes. There were approximately 16,000 military . [34]:270279, Notable Viet Cong atrocities include the massacre of over 3,000 unarmed civilians at Hu[255] during the Tet Offensive and the killing of 252 civilians during the k Sn massacre. The Foreign Minister for the Viet Cong and later the PRG was also a woman, Nguyn Th Bnh. [257] According to Rummel, PAVN and Viet Cong troops killed 164,000 civilians in democide between 1954 and 1975 in South Vietnam, from a range of between 106,000 and 227,000 (50,000 of which were reportedly killed by shelling and mortar on ARVN forces during the retreat to Tuy Hoa). Unlike the men, the women who served in the military were solely volunteers. Most Asian countries were unwilling to accept these refugees, many of whom fled by boat and were known as boat people. Thieu, mistrustful and indecisive, remained president until 1975, having won a one-candidate election in 1971. [215] The fall of Phuoc Binh and the lack of an American response left the South Vietnamese elite demoralized. In particular, they helped man anti-aircraft batteries, rebuild roads and railroads, transport supplies, and perform other engineering works. Northern forces, their morale boosted by their recent victories, rolled on, taking Nha Trang, Cam Ranh and Da Lat. [209] In AprilMay 1970, North Vietnam invaded Cambodia at the request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with deputy leader Nuon Chea. The top-secret history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, commissioned by the Department of Defense, detailed a long series of public deceptions on the part of the U.S. government. Format BW Photograph, 8.5" x 11" Source United Press International Series American Experience [97]:17 As Army Chief of Staff Harold Keith Johnson noted, "if anything came out of Vietnam, it was that air power couldn't do the job. Tr's plan called for a limited offensive from Cambodia into Phc Long Province. "[123] Eisenhower's put 900 advisors in Vietnam, and by November 1963, Kennedy had put 16,000 American military personnel in Vietnam. [71]:14 Chinese weapons, expertise, and laborers transformed the Viet Minh from a guerrilla force into a regular army. The United States had just sent its first combat. [188]:272274 An unconventional victory was sidelined in favor of a strategy built on conventional victory through conquest. Viet Cong attacks against static US positions accounted for 30% of all engagements, VC/PAVN ambushes and encirclements for 23%, American ambushes against Viet Cong/PAVN forces for 9%, and American forces attacking Viet Cong emplacements for only 5% of all engagements. The north was supported by the Soviet Union, China,[21] and other communist states, while the south was supported by the United States and other anti-communist allies. Xiaoming, Zhang. [317], Between 1953 and 1975, the United States was estimated to have spent $168billion on the war (equivalent to $1.47 trillion in 2021). [195] Among the enlisted, only 2.5% chose infantry combat positions in 19691970. [151] The Marines' initial assignment was the defense of Da Nang Air Base. Forces. [46], U.S. forces established numerous free-fire zones as a tactic to prevent Viet Cong fighters from sheltering in South Vietnamese villages. The U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam, Henry Cabot Lodge, invited the coup leaders to the embassy and congratulated them. There was an active strategy of recruitment and favorable treatment of Montagnard tribes for the Viet Cong, as they were pivotal for control of infiltration routes. [288]:4,10, The U.S. dropped over 7million tons of bombs on Indochina during the war, more than triple the 2.1million tons of bombs the U.S. dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II and more than ten times the amount dropped by the U.S. during the Korean War. Another notable work was the diary of ng Thy Trm, a North Vietnamese doctor who enlisted in the Southern battlefield, and was killed at the age of 27 by U.S. forces near Qung Ngi. Previously, the VC had utilised hit-and-run guerrilla tactics. [40]:35, During the Battle of Dien Bien Phu (1954), U.S. carriers sailed to the Gulf of Tonkin and the U.S. conducted reconnaissance flights. As Robert F. Kennedy noted, "Dim wouldn't make even the slightest concessions. [79][80][81], Given that there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this particular conflict is known by its primary protagonists' names to distinguish it from others. [33] Between 195,000 and 430,000 South Vietnamese civilians died in the war. Election and the Vietnam War Lyndon B. Johnson campaign button Lyndon B. Johnson campaign button American presidential election, 1964 In the presidential election of 1964, Johnson was opposed by conservative Republican Barry Goldwater. [258]:71. He seemed concerned only with fending off coups and had become more paranoid after attempts in 1960 and 1962, which he partly attributed to U.S. encouragement. By 28 March 35,000 PAVN troops were poised to attack the suburbs. [72][40]:131. [34]:450453, According to figures released by the Vietnamese government there were 849,018 confirmed military deaths on the PAVN/VC side during the war. "[226]:10, The Vietnam War POW/MIA issue, concerning the fate of U.S. service personnel listed as missing in action, persisted for many years after the war's conclusion. 5, pp. Bombing was not restricted to North Vietnam. With the fall of the city, the defense of the Central Highlands and Northern provinces came to an end. [258]:7 First Lieutenant Sharon Lane was the only female military nurse to be killed by enemy gunfire during the war, on 8 June 1969. [154] Johnson did not, however, communicate this change in strategy to the media. These included the Ho Chi Minh trail supply route, which ran through Laos and Cambodia. [84] The French colonial empire gradually retook control of Indochina. Marilyn B. [173] The U.S. claimed 17,000 of the PAVN and Viet Cong had been killed and 15,000 wounded. [165]:148149 By the end of 1968, the VC insurgents held almost no territory in South Vietnam, and their recruitment dropped by over 80%, signifying a drastic reduction in guerrilla operations, necessitating increased use of PAVN regular soldiers from the north. [202] In the post-Tet environment, membership in the South Vietnamese Regional Force and Popular Force militias grew, and they were now more capable of providing village security, which the Americans had not accomplished under Westmoreland. In Vietnam, the war is generally known as the "Resistance war against the United States" (Khng chin chng M).
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